1.Isingeniso
Ngokuthuthuka kwemboni yamakhemikhali, amazinga okuphila kwabantu athuthuke njalo. Nakuba impilo ithuthuke kakhulu, ibangele nezinkinga ezinkulu zemvelo, yaze yabeka impilo nokuphepha kwabantu engozini. Njengoba izidingo zabantu zempilo ziqhubeka zikhuphuka, ukuphepha kwemikhiqizo yamakhemikhali kusakazeke kakhulu empilweni yansuku zonke kuye kwadonsela ukunaka komphakathi kabanzi. Ama-detergent, njengezinto zamakhemikhali ezisetshenziswa kakhulu ekuphileni kwansuku zonke nasekukhiqizweni kwezimboni, adonsele ukukhathazeka okukhulu komphakathi ngokuphepha kwawo.
Ukuphepha kwemikhiqizo yamakhemikhali kwake kwaba yinkinga enkulu. Lesi simo sivela ngakolunye uhlangothi ngenxa yokuthembela kakhulu ekukhiqizweni kwensipho ezintweni zokusetshenziswa zendabuko, kanti ngakolunye uhlangothi ngenxa yokuntuleka kolwazi lochwepheshe lomphakathi mayelana nezinqubo zokukhiqiza amakhemikhali.
Ngokuphikisana nalesi simo, kuqondiswa umqondo oyinhloko we-chemistry eluhlaza — “ukunciphisa nokuqeda ukungcola kwemvelo emthonjeni” — lolu cwaningo luklama futhi luthuthukise okushainsipho yokuhlanzaukwakheka. Kunobungani nemveloama-surfactantkanye nama-reagent amakhemikhali akwazi ukuvimbela ama-microorganisms emanzini asetshenziswa kulolu hlobo lwensipho.
2.Isimo Sokuthuthukiswa Kwamanje se-Ama-detergent
Selokhu isintu sangena emphakathini ophucukile, imisebenzi yokuwasha ibilokhu iyingxenye ebalulekile yokuphila komuntu. Eminyakeni engaba ngu-5,000 eyedlule, abantu baqala ukuqoqa izinto zemvelo ezingabambi ukugeza njengezithelo ze-honeylocust zaseShayina kanye nezingxenye ze-alkaline emlotheni wezitshalo ukuze bazigeze. Eminyakeni engamakhulu amathathu kamuva, ama-surfactants akhiqizwa ngokwenziwa ngabantu. Eminyakeni engaphezu kwekhulu eyedlule, kwasungulwa insipho. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, insipho eyenziwe ngamafutha, i-alkali, usawoti, izinongo kanye nemibala isibe insipho yendabuko. Insipho yokuqala yokwenziwa eyenziwe, i-alkali naphthalene sulfonate, yavela ngesikhathi seMpi Yezwe I. Yakhiwa yi-BASF yaseJalimane ngo-1917 futhi yaqala ukukhiqizwa ngokusemthethweni ngo-1925. Ukwanda kwensipho yokwenziwa kwenzeka ngemuva kokutholakala kwe-sodium alkyl benzene sulfonate kanye ne-tetrapropylene alkyl benzene futhi yethulwa ngokusemthethweni ekukhiqizweni phakathi kuka-1935 no-1939.
3.Izithako Ezisebenzayo kanye Nendlela Yokusebenza Ye-Ama-detergent
3.1UkugezaIsimiso
Ukugeza ngomqondo ojwayelekile kubhekisela enkambisweni yokususa ukungcola ebusweni bomthwali. Ngesikhathi sokugeza, isenzo sensipho senza buthaka noma siqede ukusebenzisana phakathi kokungcola nomthwali, siguqule isimo sokubopha ukungcola nomthwali sibe isimo sokubopha ukungcola nomthofu. Ekugcineni, ukungcola kuhlukaniswa nomthwali ngokuhlambulula nangezinye izindlela. Inqubo eyisisekelo yesenzo sokugeza ingabonakaliswa ngobudlelwano obulula obulandelayo:
Isithwali·Ukungcola + Isihlanzi → Isithwali + Ukungcola·Isihlanzi
Ukunamathela kokungcola ezintweni kuhlukaniswe ngokunamathela okungokoqobo kanye nokunamathela kwamakhemikhali. Ukunamathela okungokoqobo kuhlanganisa nokunamathela okungokomshini kanye nokunamathela okusebenzisa ugesi.
Ukunamathela kwamakhemikhali kubhekisela kakhulu ekunamatheleni okutholakala ngezibopho zamakhemikhali. Isibonelo, amabala amaprotheni kanye nokugqwala okunamathele ezintweni zefayibha kungokwe-adhesion yamakhemikhali. Njengoba amandla okuxhumana kwamakhemikhali alolu hlobo lokunamathela ngokuvamile enamandla, ukungcola kuhlanganiswa ngokuqinile ne-substrate futhi kunzima kakhulu ukususa, kudinga izindlela ezikhethekile zokwelapha.
Amandla okuxhumana phakathi kokungcola okunamathiselwe ukunamathela ngokomzimba kanye ne-substrate abuthakathaka, okwenza kube lula ukususa uma kuqhathaniswa nokunamathela kwamakhemikhali. Ukungcola okunamathelayo kulula ukususa; kunzima kuphela ukususa uma izinhlayiya zokungcola zincane (<0.1 μm). Ukunamathela kwe-electrostatic kubonakala njengokuxhumana phakathi kwezinhlayiya zokungcola ezishajiwe kanye nokushaja okuphambene. La mandla anamandla kunamandla okusebenza, okuholela ekususweni kokungcola okunzima.
Inqubo yokuwasha yokususa ukungcola ngokuvamile ibhekwa njengehlanganisa izigaba ezilandelayo:
A. Ukumuncwa: Ama-surfactant kuma-detergent afakwa ekumuncweni okuqondile endaweni ephakathi kokungcola kanye nesithwali.
B. Ukumanzisa Nokungena: Ngenxa yokumuncwa kwama-surfactants ngendlela ehambisanayo, insipho ingangena phakathi kokungcola kanye nesithwali, imanzise isithwali, futhi inciphise amandla okunamathela phakathi kokungcola kanye nesithwali.
C. Ukuhlakazeka Nokuzinziswa Kokungcola: Ukungcola okukhishwe endaweni yokuthwala kuyahlakazeka, kuhlanganiswe noma kuncibilikiswe esixazululweni sensipho, okuqinisekisa ukuthi ukungcola okususiwe ngeke kuphinde kunamathele endaweni ehlanziwe.
3.1.1 Izinhlobo Zenhlabathi
Inhlabathi ibhekisela ezintweni ezinamafutha ezinamathela ezithwalini kanye nezinamathiselo zezinto ezinjalo ezinamafutha, eziqukethe ukwakheka okuyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu. Ngokusekelwe ezinhlotsheni ezahlukene, ingahlukaniswa cishe ibe inhlabathi eqinile, inhlabathi ewuketshezi kanye nenhlabathi ekhethekile.
Inhlabathi eqinile evamile ihlanganisa ukugqwala, uthuli, izinhlayiya ezimnyama zekhabhoni nokunye okunjalo. Ubuso balezi zinto buvame ukuba namacala amabi, okwenza kube lula ukunamathela ezisekelweni. Iningi lenhlabathi eqinile ayincibiliki emanzini, kodwa ingahlakazeka kalula ezixazululweni zamanzi eziqukethe insipho; izinhlayiya ezinkulu eziqinile kulula ukuzisusa. Iningi lenhlabathi ewuketshezi evame kakhulu iyancibilika ku-oyela futhi ingafakwa ku-saponification ngezixazululo ze-alkaline, okuchaza ukuthi kungani insipho eziningi ziyi-alkaline. Inhlabathi ekhethekile ibhekisela kakhulu kumabala aqinile njenge-bloodstains, i-plant steam kanye nokukhishwa kwabantu. Lolu hlobo lwenhlabathi lususwa kakhulu ngama-bleach, njengoba i-oxidizing properties yama-bleach ingabhubhisa amaqembu awo e-chromophoric.
3.2 Izithako Ezisebenzayo Ezisezitsheni Zokuhlanza
Ama-surfactant, aziwa nangokuthi izinto ezisebenza phezu kwamanzi, yizona zinto eziyinhloko ezisebenzayo kuma-detergent. Ancibilika ngokushesha emanzini futhi abonisa izakhiwo ezinhle kakhulu okuhlanganisa ukuhlanza, ukugqwala, ukuncibilikisa, ukuhlanganisa, ukumanzisa kanye nokuhlakazeka.
3.2.1 Ama-Surfactants: Imvelaphi kanye Nentuthuko
Ukuhlolwa kukhombisile ukuthi ukufaka izinto ezithile emanzini kungashintsha ukucindezeleka kobuso bawo, futhi izinto ezahlukene zinemiphumela ehlukahlukene ekucindezelekeni kobuso bamanzi.
Ngokuphathelene nempahla yokunciphisa ukucindezeleka kobuso, ikhono lokunciphisa ukucindezeleka kobuso be-solvent lichazwa njengomsebenzi wobuso, kanti izinto ezinomsebenzi wobuso zibizwa ngokuthi izinto ezisebenza ebusweni. Izinto ezingashintsha kakhulu isimo sokuxhumana kwesistimu yesisombululo uma zengezwa ngamanani amancane zibizwa ngokuthi ama-surfactants.
I-surfactant yinto ethi, uma ingezwa ku-solvent ngesilinganiso esincane, inganciphisa kakhulu ukucindezeleka kobuso be-solvent futhi ishintshe isimo se-interfacial sesistimu. Lokhu kubangela uchungechunge lwemisebenzi efana nokumanzisa noma ukususa amanzi, i-emulsification noma i-demulsification, ukuhlakazeka noma i-flocculation, ukugqwala noma ukususa i-foam, ukuncibilikisa, ukuthambisa, ukubulala amagciwane, ukuthambisa, ukuxosha amanzi, impahla yokulwa ne-static kanye nokumelana nokugqwala, ukuze kuhlangatshezwane nezidingo zokusetshenziswa ezingokoqobo.
Ama-surfactant asekelwe ensipho aqala ukuvela eGibhithe lasendulo cishe ngo-2500 BC, lapho abaseGibhithe basendulo benza khona imikhiqizo yokuhlanza ngengxube yamafutha emvu kanye nomlotha wezitshalo. Cishe ngo-70 AD, uPliny woMbuso WaseRoma wadala insipho yokuqala yamafutha emvu. Insipho ayizange ithandwe kabanzi kwaze kwaba ngu-1791, lapho isazi semithi saseFrance uNicolas Leblanc sithola indlela yokukhiqiza i-caustic soda nge-electrolysis ye-sodium chloride. Umkhiqizo wesigaba sesibili sokuthuthukiswa kwe-surfactant yi-Turkey Red Oil, eyaziwa nangokuthi i-Sulfonated Castor Oil. Yenziwa ngokuphendula uwoyela we-castor nge-sulfuric acid egxilile ekushiseni okuphansi, kulandelwe ukungathathi hlangothi nge-sodium hydroxide. I-Turkey Red Oil inamandla amakhulu okuhlanganisa, ukungena kwamanzi kanye nokusabalala, futhi idlula insipho ngokumelana namanzi aqinile, i-asidi kanye nosawoti wensimbi.
3.2.2 Isakhiwo Somsebenzi Womphezulu
Izakhiwo eziyingqayizivele zama-surfactants zivela esakhiweni sawo esikhethekile sama-molecule. Ama-surfactants ngokuvamile angama-molecule aqondile aqukethe amaqembu e-polar athanda amanzi kanye namaqembu e-hydrophobic angewona ama-polar athanda amanzi.
Amaqembu athanda amanzi anezakhiwo ezahlukahlukene ezifana namaketanga aqondile, amaketanga anamagatsha kanye nezakhiwo ezijikelezayo. Ezivame kakhulu amaketanga e-hydrocarbon afaka phakathi ama-alkanes, ama-alkenes, ama-cycloalkanes kanye nama-hydrocarbon anuka kamnandi, kanti iningi lama-athomu e-carbon lisukela ku-8 kuya ku-20. Amanye amaqembu athanda amanzi afaka phakathi ama-fatty alcohols, ama-alkylphenols, kanye namaqembu e-athomu aqukethe i-fluorine, i-silicon nezinye izinto. Amaqembu athanda amanzi ahlukaniswe ngezinhlobo ze-anionic, i-cationic, i-amphoteric ionic kanye nezinhlobo ze-non-ionic. Ama-surfactants e-Ionic angasebenzisa i-ion emanzini ukuze athwale amashaja kagesi, kuyilapho ama-surfactants angewona ama-ionic engakwazi ukusebenzisa i-ion emanzini kodwa ane-polarity kanye nokuncibilika kwamanzi.
3.2.3 Ama-Surfactants Avamile Ayingozi
Ama-surfactant asetshenziswa kabanzi empilweni yansuku zonke yabantu, kodwa ngokuqinisekile ayizinto zamakhemikhali. Izinto eziningi zokusetshenziswa zama-surfactant zinezakhiwo ezithile zobuthi kanye nokungcola. Ngokungenakugwenywa, zibangela umonakalo emvelweni; lapho zithintana nabantu, zingacasula isikhumba, kanti ezinye zize zibe nobuthi obukhulu kanye nokugqwala, okubangela umonakalo omkhulu emzimbeni womuntu. Okulandelayo kwethula ama-surfactant amaningana avamile ayingozi:
A. I-APEO
I-APEO uhlobo oluvamile lwe-surfactant engeyona i-ionic, eyakhiwe yi-alkyl moiety kanye ne-ethoxy moiety. Ukushintshashintsha kobude be-carbon chain yengxenye ye-alkyl kanye nokwengezwa okuhlukile kwengxenye ye-ethoxy kuholela ezinhlotsheni eziningi ezikhona ze-APEO ngomehluko omkhulu wokusebenza phakathi kwezinhlobo ezahlukene. Enqubweni yokwenziwa kwe-APEO, umkhiqizo oyinhloko awuyona i-carcinogenic, kodwa imikhiqizo yawo engaphansi iyalimaza isikhumba namehlo, futhi eminye ingabangela umdlavuza ezimweni ezimbi kakhulu. Nakuba ingalimazi ngqo izinto eziphilayo, i-APEO ibeka ingozi kuma-hormone emvelo. Izinto ezinjalo zamakhemikhali zingena emzimbeni womuntu ngezindlela ezahlukene, zinemiphumela efana ne-estrogen, ziphazamise ukukhishwa kwama-hormone omuntu okuvamile, futhi zinciphise inani lesidoda sowesilisa. Ayilimazi nje kuphela abantu; imibiko ikhombisa ukuthi izinto zayo zokwenziwa i-NPEO nazo zibangela umonakalo omkhulu ezinhlanzini.
B. I-PFOS
I-PFOS, ebizwa ngokugcwele ngokuthi i-Perfluorooctane Sulfonate, yigama elijwayelekile lesigaba sama-surfactants afakwe i-perfluorine. Inomphumela wokukhulisa imvelo. Ngenxa yezakhiwo zayo ezikhethekile zomzimba nezamakhemikhali, i-PFOS kunzima kakhulu ukuyiwohloza futhi ibhekwa njengenye yezinto eziphikisana kakhulu. Ngemva kokungena ezilwaneni nasemzimbeni womuntu ngochungechunge lokudla, iqoqana ngobuningi futhi isongela kakhulu impilo yezinto eziphilayo.
C. LAS
I-LAS iwukungcola okukhulu kwemvelo okubangela umonakalo omkhulu emvelweni. Ingashintsha izakhiwo zomzimba nezamakhemikhali zenhlabathi, njengokushintsha inani le-pH yenhlabathi kanye nokuqukethwe kwamanzi, ngaleyo ndlela ivimbele ukukhula kwezitshalo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, lapho ingena emanzini, i-LAS ingahlangana nezinye izinto ezingcolisayo ukuze yakhe izinhlayiya ze-colloidal ezihlakazekile futhi ibonise ubuthi ezintweni eziphilayo ezincane eziphakeme kanye nezinto eziphilayo eziphansi.
D. Ama-surfactants e-Fluorocarbon
I-PFOA kanye ne-PFOS yizona zinto ezimbili eziyinhloko ezisetshenziswa yi-fluorocarbon surfactants. Izifundo ezifanele zikhombisile ukuthi lezi zinhlanganisela zinobuthi obukhulu, zibangela ukungcola kwemvelo okuqhubekayo, futhi ziqoqana kakhulu ezintweni eziphilayo. Ngenxa yalokho, zafakwa ohlwini lwe-Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) yi-United Nations ngo-2009.
Ama-Surfactant Aluhlaza kanye Nohlobo Olusha 4
A. Ama-Surfactants Asekelwe ku-Amino Acid
Ama-surfactant asekelwe kuma-amino acid enziwe kakhulu ngezinto zokusetshenziswa ze-biomass ezinemithombo eminingi. Anemiphumela emibi ephansi enobuthi kanye nemiphumela emibi, izakhiwo ezincane, ukucasuka okuncane ezintweni eziphilayo, kanye nokubola okuhle kakhulu. Ngokwezakhiwo zokushaja zamaqembu e-hydrophilic ngemva kokufakwa emanzini, angahlukaniswa ngezigaba ezine: i-cationic, i-anionic, i-non-ionic kanye ne-amphoteric. Izinhlobo ezivamile zifaka phakathi uhlobo lwe-N-alkyl amino acid, uhlobo lwe-amino acid ester kanye nohlobo lwe-N-acyl amino acid.
B. Ama-surfactants e-Pineapple Enzyme
Ama-surfactant e-enzyme yephayinaphu akhiqizwa ngokubilisa ufulawa wembewu ye-camellia kanye nekhekhe lamafutha elisele ngemuva kokukhishwa kwamafutha, ikhasi likaphayinaphu, kanye nempuphu yemvubelo, i-pectinase nezinye izinto ezincane. Nakuba isakhiwo sama-molecule ezithako zawo ezisebenzayo singakacaci, idatha yokuhlola ifakazela ukuthi zisebenza kahle ekugezeni.
C. SAA
I-SAA iwumkhiqizo osuselwa kumafutha esundu. Njengomkhiqizo owenziwe ngezinto zokusetshenziswa zezitshalo ezivuselelekayo, idonsele ukunaka kabanzi. Inqubo yayo yokukhiqiza inobungani nemvelo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, emanzini aqinile anokuqukethwe okuphezulu kwe-calcium ne-magnesium ion, ikhipha usawoti we-calcium kancane kakhulu kunezithako ezisetshenziswa kakhulu njenge-LAS ne-AS, okusho ukuthi inikeza uketshezi oluvelele ekusetshenzisweni okusebenzayo.
5 Ithemba Lokuthuthukiswa Kwezitsha Zokuhlanza
Kuyo yonke imakethe yezinsipho zomhlaba wonke, amazwe ayahlukahluka ngezinto eziza kuqala ekuthuthukisweni kanye nezitayela, kodwa isiqondiso socwaningo olujwayelekile lwemikhiqizo yezinsipho sisalokhu sihambisana. Ukuhlushwa kanye nokuncibilika kwezinsipho sekuyinto evamile, kuyilapho ukulondolozwa kwamanzi, ukuphepha, ukonga amandla, ubungcweti, ubungane bemvelo kanye nokusebenza okuningi kuye kwavela njengezinkomba zokuthuthukiswa ezidumile. Ama-surfactant, izinto zokusetshenziswa eziyinhloko zezinsipho, aguqukela ekubeni mnene, ukwakheka kwenhlanganisela kanye nokuhambisana nemvelo. Amalungiselelo e-enzyme, asebenza kahle kakhulu, acacile kanye nobungane bemvelo, abe yindawo yokucwaninga ekuthuthukisweni kwezinsipho. Sekukonke, izitayela zokuthuthukiswa kwemboni yezinsipho zifingqiwe kanje:
Ukuhlukahluka, ukukhethekile kanye nokuhlukaniswa kwemikhiqizo yokuhlanzwa. Ama-detergent angahlukaniswa ngezinhlobo eziqinile, impuphu, uketshezi kanye nejeli ngesimo; uhlobo oluhlanganisiwe kanye nohlobo olujwayelekile ngokuqukethwe kwezithako ezisebenzayo; kanye nezigaba ezahlukahlukene ngokupakishwa, umbala kanye nephunga.
Izinsipho zoketshezi zizoba yisigaba somkhiqizo esithembisayo kakhulu. Uma kuqhathaniswa nezinsipho eziqinile, izinsipho zoketshezi zisebenza kangcono ekuhlanzeni okuphansi kwezinga lokushisa, zinomklamo wefomula oguquguqukayo kanye nezinqubo zokukhiqiza ezilula. Zidinga nokutshalwa kwezimali okuncane kwemishini futhi zisebenzisa amandla amancane ngesikhathi sokukhiqiza.
Ukuhlushwa okuqhubekayo kwemikhiqizo yensipho. Kusukela ngo-2009, insipho ehlanganisiwe iguquke yaba izigaba ezintathu ezinkulu: i-washing powder ehlanganisiwe, ama-laundry pod ahlanganisiwe kanye ne-liquid detergent ehlanganisiwe. Insipho ehlanganisiwe inezinzuzo eziphawulekayo kunemikhiqizo yendabuko, okuhlanganisa okuqukethwe okuphezulu kwezinto ezisebenzayo, i-detergent enamandla kanye nokonga amandla. Ngaphezu kwalokho, yonga izinto zokupakisha, inciphisa izindleko zokuhamba futhi ithatha isikhala esincane sokugcina impahla ngenxa yefomula yayo ehlanganisiwe.
Ukuqondiswa kokuphepha kwabantu. Njengoba amazinga okuphila ethuthuka, abantu abasahloli nje kuphela izihlanzi ngokusebenza kokususa amabala. Ukuphepha kwabantu, ukungabi nobuthi kanye nokungacasuli okuncane sekuyizindlela ezibalulekile zokukhetha izihlanzi.
Ukuthuthukiswa komkhiqizo onobungani nemvelo. Ukwanda kwe-eutrophication okubangelwa yizinsipho eziqukethe i-phosphorus kanye nemiphumela emibi yezindawo zokumhlophela kwemvelo kuye kwabangela ukukhathazeka okukhulu emphakathini. Ngenxa yezidingo ze-chemistry eluhlaza, ukukhethwa kwezinto zokusetshenziswa kwezinsipho kushintsha kancane kancane kuye kwaba yizinketho ezinobungani nemvelo nezithambile.
Ukusebenza okuningi. Ukusebenza okuningi kuyindlela evamile yokuthuthukiswa kwemikhiqizo eyahlukahlukene yezenhlalo, futhi izidingo zansuku zonke zezinhloso eziningi sezivamile empilweni. Esikhathini esizayo, izihlanzi zizohlanganisa ukususwa kwamabala nemisebenzi efana nokubulala amagciwane, ukubulala amagciwane kanye nokumhlophe.
Isikhathi sokuthunyelwe: Meyi-15-2026